drugs

Heroin



Heroin is a highly addictive central nervous system depressant, processed from morphine: a naturally occurring substance in the seed pod of certain types of poppies. Heroin can be smoked, injected, or sniffed/snorted. Injection is the most effective means of administration for low-purity heroin, although high purity heroin can be snorted which eliminates the stigma of needles (although high rates of heroin use may damage the nasal lining and passages leading the user to eventually resort to injection). If needles and equipment are shared between heroin users, there is an increased risk of the spread of hepatitis B and C, HIV/AIDS, or other blood-borne disease. Chronic heroin abuse often results in collapsed veins, infections of the heart lining, and liver disease.

Production
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In a labor intensive process the seed pods of poppies are scored, allowing the opium gum to flow freely. Once the gum has hardened on the outside of the seed pod it is scraped off and collected. The opium gum is allowed to dry and is chemically processed with calcium oxide and ammonium chloride to produce morphine base. The conversion of morphine into heroin involves the use of acetic anhydride and sodium carbonate. Further refining of the brown heroin base to white heroin base requires hydrochloric acid and ammonia. The final step is the use of acetone and hydrochloric acid to make heroin hydrochloride.


Source Areas
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Heroin production occurs in three primary regions: Southwest Asia (Afghanistan), Southeast Asia (Myanmar), and Latin America (Colombia and Mexico).
The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) heroin production estimates for the past ten years reflect substantial changes in the primary source areas. Heroin production in Southeast Asia declined dramatically, while heroin production in Southwest Asia expanded. The decrease in heroin production from Myanmar is the result of several years of unfavorable growing conditions and new government policies of forced eradication. Afghan heroin production increased during the same timeframe, with a notable decrease in 2001 purportedly as a result of the Taliban’s fatwa (religious ban) against heroin production. Afghanistan now produces over 90 percent of the world’s opium.

Afghanistan : The Golden Crescent

The UNODC estimates opium cultivation in Afghanistan increased 59 percent in 2006 to a record 165,000 hectares. US government estimates for the same time period suggest 172,600 hectares were used for poppy cultivation. Although the U.S. government estimates indicate more ground under poppy cultivation, the potential yield estimate is lower than the production estimate from UNODC. Consequently, the total production of opium from Afghanistan in 2006 ranges from 5,644 to 6,100 metric tons. Given an average conversion ratio of 10:1 for opium to heroin, total production ranges from 564 to 610 metric tons, 30 percent greater than current market demand estimates. Helmand province produced 42 percent of the total opium from Afghanistan in 2006 with 69,324 hectares under cultivation. Other provinces with significant amounts of production (greater than 5,000 hectares) include Badakhshan (13,056 hectares), Balkh (7,232 hectares), Kandahar (12,619 hectares), Uruzgan (9,703 hectares), Day-kundi (7,044 hectares), and Farah (7,694 hectares).
Drug cultivation in Afghanistan is facilitated by both domestic and foreign individuals who lend money and/or provide agricultural inputs to farmers. These individuals then buy the crop at set prices or settle the payment of loans through the acceptance of raw opium as a payment in-kind. Reporting from multiple sources indicate nearly all of the opium is converted to heroin in Afghanistan. This is a significant transformation of the industry given the history of smuggling raw opium for heroin conversion in other countries, such as Turkey. With a conversion factor of nearly 10:1 between opium and heroin the size of the shipments to be smuggled is considerably smaller, therefore easier to conceal. This also suggests a transformation of the heroin market as Afghanistan shifts from being a source of raw material to a producer of the finished product.
The essential precursor chemical for heroin conversion is acetic anhydride. Acetic anhydride is a clear, colorless liquid with a pungent, odor similar to vinegar. It is used in the manufacture of cellulose acetate as a base for magnetic tape, and in the manufacture of textile fibers. When heated with salicylic acid it produces acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin), and is used in the manufacture of pigments, dyes, cellulose, and pesticides.
Given that there is no legitimate use for acetic anhydride in Afghanistan, large quantities of the chemical must be smuggled into the country, possibly ranging from 645 metric tons to 697 metric tons.

Southeast Asia : The Golden Triangle
Although the tri-border region of Myanmar, Thailand and Laos accounts for the majority of heroin production in Southeast Asia, the amount of heroin produced in the area has decreased by approximately 70% over the last five years. In 2004, Myanmar and Laos accounted for nearly the entire heroin produced in the region. Eradication efforts and the enforcement of poppy-free zones have combined to depress cultivation levels for the last four years, although the decline in heroin production is being offset by an increase in the production of methamphetamine (yaba). Myanmar’s opium is grown primarily in the border region of Shan State in areas controlled by former insurgent groups.

Latin America :
Colombia
Due largely to the distinct markets for the two types of heroin, Latin American heroin production assessments differentiate between drug production in Colombia and Mexico.
Andean production during the last decade remained relatively stable. Production peaked in 1998 at 100 metric tons of opium, declining by nearly 25% over the next five years. Significant crop reductions in 2004 and 2005 resulted in an estimated production of 28 metric tons in 2005.
The normal difficulties associated with counter-drug operations and crop eradication efforts are compounded by the presence of various armed groups in the area, including the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), the United Self Defense Forces of Colombia (AUC) and, to a lesser extent, the National Liberation Army (ELN). These groups control areas in Colombia with high concentrations of coca and opium poppy cultivation, and their involvement in the narcotics trade is a major source of violence and terrorism in the country.

Mexico
Of the four major opium source areas in the world, Mexican-produced “black-tar” and brown heroin are generally the lowest in purity. An increase in heroin overdoses in the western United States in the late 1990s, however, reflected an increase in the purity of Mexican heroin. Although production has fluctuated over the last decade, 69 metric tons of opium was produced in 2005. Mexican farmers (like Colombian poppy growers) use small, widely disbursed plots in remote regions to avoid having their crops detected and eradicated. These fields are often inaccessible to aerial eradication efforts.

Major transportation routes
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Southwest Asian heroin
The bulk of Southwest Asian heroin is moved overland to market destinations. Afghan heroin moves to markets in Europe, Asia, and the Middle East through Iran, Pakistan, and Central Asia. An estimated 40% of the heroin and morphine from Afghanistan moves through Iran. Iran reports significant seizures of opium and heroin from smuggler convoys which are increasingly well-armed and capable of traveling at night.
Two primary routes are used to smuggle heroin: the Balkan Route, which runs through southeastern Europe, and the Silk Route, which runs through Central Asia. The anchor point for the Balkan Route is Turkey, which remains a major staging area and transportation route for heroin destined for European markets. The Balkan Route is divided into three sub-routes: the southern route runs through Turkey, Greece, Albania and Italy; the central route runs through Turkey, Bulgaria, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Slovenia, and into either Italy or Austria; and the northern route runs from Turkey, Bulgaria and Romania to Austria, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Poland or Germany. Large quantities of heroin are destined for either the Netherlands or the United Kingdom.



Nine kilograms of heroin in a double bottom suitcase seized by Belgian Customs officers in April 2006 from a passenger arriving from Turkey.
Although the Balkan Route is considered the primary supply line for Western Europe Afghan and Central Asian traffickers smuggle heroin along the Silk Route into Russia, the Baltic States, Poland, Ukraine, the Czech Republic and other parts of Europe. Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, K azakhstan, and Turkmenistan are vital transit countries, with an estimated 24% of Afghan heroin smuggled along this route.
A trend that appears to be developing is the shipment of large quantities of heroin to European markets. Several multi-hundred kilo seizures have taken place in the last year, possibly as a result of a willingness to risk larger quantities knowing that a ready source of heroin remains available. Another possibility is the stockpiling of heroin for European markets.

East Africa is a key entry area for southwest Asian heroin destined for markets in East and South Africa. These areas are supplied by East and West African trafficking organizations as well as southwest Asian criminal groups operating out of India and Pakistan and, more recently, Afghanistan. These organizations rely to a large extent on commercial air, using both human couriers as well as air freight to conceal heroin consignments. The quantities of heroin smuggled in this fashion are generally inferior to the amounts smuggled in commercial vehicles along the Balkan Route. It is suspected that maritime shipments are also utilized, but the extent of this activity remains uncertain. There is also evidence that a number of these organizations deal in the trafficking of other controlled substances such as cocaine obtained in South America and cannabis produced in Africa. East African groups are responsible for moving Afghan heroin to markets in the United States and Canada, usually using human couriers.

Southeast Asian heroin
Much of the heroin produced in the region reaches markets through southern China, although increased law enforcement pressure by Chinese authorities has forced some traffickers to seek new routes through Thailand. In Laos, the Mekong River remains a major conduit for heroin trafficking and is patrolled in only a few areas. Many key drug areas, particularly in the north, are virtually inaccessible to Laotian officials. Ethnic Chinese traffickers control the heroin trade in Australia (often with Vietnamese criminal organizations), Malaysia, and the few remaining markets in Canada and the United States.
Hong Kong, China’s position as a key port city and its proximity to the Golden Triangle and mainland China historically have made it a natural transit point for heroin moving from Southeast Asia to global markets. Although the amount of heroin transiting through Hong Kong appears to be diminishing, drug traffickers continue to use it as a base of operations.

Colombian and Mexican heroin
Nearly the entire amount of heroin produced in Mexico is destined for markets in the western half of the United States, while Colombian heroin supplies the eastern United States. Colombian traffickers use routes through Venezuela, Argentina, Ecuador, Panama, and Mexico to move heroin to the United States. Heroin is often concealed in the lining of clothing or luggage, although heroin sallower are still common. There are reports of heroin shipments being combined with cocaine loads on go-fast boats departing from Colombia’s Atlantic coast.




Colombian heroin seized at the Barranquilla airport January 2007. The heroin was sewn into clothing being shipped to the United States.
Mexican drug trafficking organizations control the transportation of the heroin across the border and exercise control over the distribution of the drug in the United States. In 2004 the same criminal organizations continued to expand their distribution operations in major Mexican cities and tourist zones due to increasing domestic drug demand. Although Mexican heroin generally dominates the markets west of the Mississippi River, several recent cases involved the distribution of Mexican heroin in the Midwest.


Markets and current trends
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Europe remains the primary market for heroin, accounting for one-third of the world’s opiate consumption. Despite the increased production in southwest Asia, the European demand for heroin appears to be stable. Southwest Asian heroin supplies consumers across Europe, Central Asia, Russia, where demand is increasing, and the Commonwealth of Independent States. Reports indicate that Iran has a persistent heroin abuse problem as well, and serves as a critical transit point for heroin destined to Europe. Estimates suggest 2 million Iranians are drug addicts, with 1.2 million addicted to heroin.
Although Southeast Asian heroin dominates the Asian illicit drug markets, the Golden Crescent is increasingly a source of illicit drugs trafficked into western China, particularly Xingjian Province. As of 2004, there were 1.6 million registered drug addicts in China, double the number in 1995. Unofficial sources suggest the number of drug users in China may be as high as 7 million.
A consequence of the increased production of opium from Afghanistan is an increase in the purity of southwest Asian heroin. One indicator of this higher heroin purity is a change in abuse patterns. In Pakistan, addicts are increasingly injecting rather than smoking heroin. Injection has also become the preferred method of abuse in Southeast Asia, particularly western China. A commensurate increase in heroin overdoses and mortality rates can be anticipated as a consequence of the increased purity of southwest Asian heroin, but the more important effect will be an acceleration of the spread of HIV/AIDS in regions affected by heroin injection.
Demand in North America remains strong, although some abuse indicators suggest demand for heroin is starting to decrease. The introduction of high-purity Colombian heroin produced a new generation of heroin addicts since the drug can be snorted like cocaine rather than injected. Nearly the entire supply of heroin to the United States originates in Mexico and Colombia. Data from DEA’s 2005 Domestic Monitor Program, a street-level indicator program, indicates 96 percent of the heroin originates in Colombia or Mexico. Most of the heroin from Southwest Asia is trafficked by West African criminal organizations.
In 2006 a series of heroin-related overdoses across the United States, most notably in Detroit and Chicago, revealed the use of fentanyl with heroin. Fentanyl is a synthetic opiate, 30 to 50 times more powerful than heroin. The U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration reported fentanyl and heroin cases in at least nine other states. In June 2006 the DEA, along with the Chicago Police Department, arrested 29 alleged members of the Mickey Cobra street gang, suspected of trafficking fentanyl-laced heroin as well as crack cocaine and marijuana. While the fentanyl in the United States appears to have been manufactured in Mexico, fentanyl abuse has been reported in Denmark, Sweden, Ukraine, and Russia. The use of fentanyl with heroin occurs sporadically, and reports from the U.S. suggest the heroin/fentanyl mixture was a deliberate effort to market a more powerful form of heroin. Given the dramatic increase in heroin production from Afghanistan, and the ease of manufacturing fentanyl, similar marketing ploys may be anticipated as dealers attempt to increase their market share. Although there are no current indications that fentanyl laced heroin will emerge as a trend, INTERPOL will continue to monitor this drug combination.
Cocaine

Cocaine production, trafficking and abuse, once seen as concerns primarily for the United States, are increasingly global in nature. Cocaine trafficking generates billions of dollars every year. Organized criminal groups use these profits to obtain power and to finance other criminal groups, terrorists and insurgencies.

Cultivation and production
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Colombia, Peru and Bolivia remain the primary sources of coca leaf and finished cocaine hydrochloride. In the last five years cocaine production in the Andean region has decreased dramatically, from over 900 metric tons to 640 metric tons in 2004. Over the last 15 years the most notable changes have been the drop in cocaine production from Bolivia and Peru and Colombia’s increased production capability.

Source: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
The year 2004 marked the fourth in a row in which cocaine production in Colombia declined. This was due to a combination of aerial eradication efforts and alternative development projects. The most recent estimates from the United States government showed that although the amount of land under coca cultivation remains the same (114,000 hectares), the potential amount of cocaine produced in Colombia was 430 metric tons. Potential cocaine production in Bolivia increased slightly to 65 metric tons, while production in Peru declined to 145 metric tons.

Markets
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The primary markets for cocaine, as reflected by the data submitted to INTERPOL’s General Secretariat remain North America and Western Europe. The information provided suggests that demand for cocaine remains stable, and there have been no significant changes other than a decrease in the amounts of cocaine seized.
The United States remains the world’s largest cocaine market. Information from abuse indicator programs suggests a moderate drop in demand for cocaine, most notably among young adults, although overall demand remains stable. Although the use of crack cocaine continues, most crack cocaine is produced in small quantities in urban areas due to the severe criminal penalties associated with possession of the drug.
Seizures in Europe have increased over the last several years, confirming the maturation of the cocaine market in Western Europe. Recent reports, particularly from northern countries, suggest young adults are increasingly using cocaine rather than amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS). This change in drug abuse patterns is likely the result of the increased availability and lower price of cocaine, as well as government campaigns against the use of ATS. Eastern European countries do not appear to have a significant problem with cocaine trafficking and abuse at this time. There are initial indications, however, that Eastern and Southern European organized crime groups are involved in the distribution of cocaine around the world, and a cocaine market may be developing in Eastern Europe.
Countries in Asia, the Middle East, Oceania and parts of Africa are reporting rises in cocaine abuse. Also, production and transit countries and neighboring states in South and Central America are increasingly affected by the cocaine trade in terms of violence, corruption and the consequences of drug abuse.

Seizures
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Based on reports from the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, nations in the Americas seized the majority of cocaine in 2003, accounting for 87% of the world’s seizures. These statistics are similar to the data supplied to the General Secretariat from member states. European nations follow with 13% of seizures. The United States seized the greatest amount of cocaine, followed by Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, Mexico and Brazil.
In Europe, Spain seized the most cocaine including seizures which took place in international waters. Recent measures by the Netherlands at the international airport in Amsterdam and in the Netherlands Antilles have reduced the number of cocaine couriers utilising the route from Curacao to the Netherlands. Nevertheless, Dutch authorities seized the second highest amount of cocaine among European nations, followed by Italy, France and Germany.

Source: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime

Synthetic drugs

As the popularity of synthetic drugs has grown , seizure rates have increased concurrently. According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), the worldwide number of users of amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) is higher than the combined number of heroin and cocaine users. The UNODC further reports that the seizure of ATS drugs is second only to the worldwide seizures of cannabis (both herbal and resin form). Information reported by INTERPOL member countries confirms the widespread production and trafficking of ATS. The global emergence of synthetic drugs is a concern for all international law enforcement authorities. While the ‘ rave ’ phenomenon served as the impetus for the proliferation of Ecstasy (MDMA) trafficking and use, it also led to the introduction of other club drugs and resurgence of methamphetamine use. Although amphetamines such as MDMA are primarily considered drug s abuse d among young adults, there are increasing reports of adult use.
The synthetic drug trade is multi - dimensional in terms of precursor chemical availability, manufacturing equipment (both sophisticated and improvised), expertise and movement of the finished product. Since clandestine drug laboratories can be located in any part of the world, the trafficking of synthetic drugs can constitute either a domestic or international problem. No single organized crime group or region dominates the synthetic drug trade , as evidenced by the increase in seizures of both laboratories and drugs in every part of the world.

Production

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Although there are significant differences in the sophistication of clandestine laboratories, particularly between the production of MDMA and methamphetamine, clandestine laboratories can be located anywhere in the world, because of the diversion of essential chemicals from their lawful destinations.
Europe, most notably countries in Western Europe, remains a major source for the large-scale production of Ecstasy. An increase in production in Eastern Europe, however, is noteworthy as it could indicate a significant shift in the source of supply. Recent production trends include polydrug manufacturing and multi-site operations , whereby different stages of drug synthesis are carried out at different locations. Reports have emerged from Eastern European countries concerning the production of a mphetamine tablets which are being produced for illicit markets in Middle Eastern countries.
North America, most notably the United States, faces a two-pronged threat from methamphetamine. According to the United States Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), 65% of the methamphetamine available in the U.S. is produced in Mexico; the balance is produced in clandestine laboratories in the U.S. Although the number of large-scale laboratories seized in the U.S. has declined in recent years , the number of small improvised laboratories has increased. According to data from the National Clandestine Laboratory Seizure System , there were more than 10,000 clandestine laboratories seized in the U.S. in 2003. The number of methamphetamine laboratories seized in Canada was far smaller. Canadian authorities have recently addressed the country’s methamphetamine problem by tightening precursor chemical controls and raising the penalties for methamphetamine trafficking. Although MDMA trafficking and abuse in both countries appear to be declin ing, the drug is still readily available.
Southeast Asia has become a key region for the production of synthetic narcotics, most notably methamphetamine. INTERPOL is playing an active role in the region by collecting information concerning the large-scale production of synthetic drugs and the criminal organizations involved.

Seizures

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Large seizures of ATS reported by INTERPOL member countries reflect a global market for this type of drug. Since the scope of production is not limited to specific agricultural zones, production facilities in any part of the world can feed the demand, creating smuggling patterns which may exist for only a short period of time.
Seizures of MDMA reported to the General Secretariat declined notably from the peak in 2001. Although this may reflect a general drop in demand for the drug, particularly in Europe and North America, there are indications of a growing Asian market.


Internet-related drug offences

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An estimated 890 million people have Internet access , with the majority in Asia, Europe and North America. Criminals exploit the benefits of e - mail, file - sharing, interactive collaboration and secure communications. The potential for abuse remains significant since the regulation and management of the Internet is controlled by private companies rather than a single regulatory agency.
An increasing number of criminals are using the Internet as a medium to exchange information on drugs or production methods, and to offer advice on where and how to obtain precursor chemicals and equipment for the production of synthetic drugs. Although the sale of drugs such as MDMA or GHB is generally not advertised on the Internet, suppliers and customers are able to meet through Internet bulletin boards and chat rooms. INTERPOL has launched an initiative to become a global platform for the co - ordination and monitoring of Internet-related drug offenses, managed by the Psychotropics Desk at the General Secretariat.
Cannabis

Background
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Products from the plant Cannabis sativa, or marijuana, are the most commonly abused and widely trafficked illicit drugs in the world. The most normally encountered form of cannabis is the dried leaves and flowers of the plant, which have a tobacco-like appearance and are either rolled into cigarettes (joints) or packed into cigars (blunts). Sinsemilla is the same form of the drug prepared from the unpollinated (seedless) female plant and has a higher level of the psychoactive chemical Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). Cannabis resin is the term applied to the dried secretion of the flowering top of the cannabis plant. Also called hashish, the drug can be in the form of a fine powder or compressed into slabs, and is either mixed with tobacco or orally ingested. Cannabis oil, while not as common as the other two forms, is made by extracting the cannabis resin in a manner similar to percolating coffee.
Legal statutes describe cannabis as a depressant with mild hallucinogenic properties, although it is also described as a stimulant and intoxicant. The effects of cannabis are a sense of euphoria, state of relaxation and enhancement of sensory experiences. The short-term effects of cannabis include an increase in appetite, faster pulse rate and impairment of both physical and intellectual performance. In large doses cannabis can cause effects similar to hallucinogens including confusion, restlessness, excitement and hallucinations. The long-term effects of cannabis may include the development of a tolerance for the drug and psychological dependence. According to research by Harvard University in the United States, the risk of a heart attack is five times higher than normal in the hour after smoking marijuana. Smoking marijuana also weakens the immune system and increases the risk of lung infections. Cannabis smoke has 50% more tar than smoke from regular cigarettes and contains more than 400 chemical compounds, several of which have been identified as carcinogens.

Production
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Cannabis grows well in nearly every part of the world and can be cultivated in large fields or in small indoor operations. Compared to other crop-based drugs such as cocaine and heroin, cannabis is easily cultivated and requires very little preparation after harvesting, which results in a highly decentralised criminal activity. The scope of global production precludes any type of effective imagery-based crop survey like the one used to estimate cocaine and heroin production. Also, the presence of large-scale indoor production facilities further reduces the validity of crop estimates. Working within the confines of these limitations and survey data supplied by 197 countries, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) listed in its World Drug Report 2005 163 countries and territories where cannabis is produced. The UNODC further estimates total global production of the cannabis herb may be 42,000 metric tons.
A disturbing trend over the past several years has been an increase in the potency of marijuana. The demand for high-potency Sinsemilla, generally grown indoors, has created a niche market and has forged alliances between disparate criminal groups. This is particularly evident in North America, where demand for ‘hydro’ or ‘B.C. bud’ has resulted in a confederation of Vietnamese marijuana growers and Indo-Canadian transportation specialists, with members of the Hells Angels motorcycle gang supervising and co-ordinating operations.

Trafficking
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Since cannabis products are easily produced in nearly every region of the world, trafficking patterns are more regionalised than they are for other crop-based drugs (most notably, cocaine and heroin). This should not, however, minimise the importance of understanding the dynamics of the trade. The trafficking of marijuana is a multi-billion-dollar professional enterprise, as evidenced by the discovery in July 2005 of a sophisticated tunnel running between British Columbia, Canada, and the United States which was used to smuggle marijuana and MDMA. Two similar seizures in Bridgetown, Barbados, in 2005 further demonstrate the sophisticated methods which are used to move cannabis. Authorities have also discovered compressed marijuana inside containers attached to the bottoms of commercial cargo vessels. The first seizure of 215 kg was discovered on 13 June, and the second seizure of 77 kg occurred on 17 June. Each vessel had two square metal containers attached to the bottom of the hull.
The revenue generated by cannabis trafficking is often connected to other crimes and illicit drugs. According to a recent report issued the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP), the marijuana industry in British Columbia is connected to weapons and explosives trafficking, cocaine smuggling and stock market fraud. The RCMP estimates the marijuana trade generates $7.5 billion (Canadian) annually and contributes to an increase in violence associated with the trade. Criminal organizations in Mexico are involved in the movement of multiple drugs, including marijuana, cocaine, heroin and methamphetamine. Information from multiple law enforcement sources indicates Mexican criminal organizations use the revenue from marijuana trafficking to fund other drug-smuggling ventures.
The trafficking patterns for cannabis are based on two distinctly different drug markets.

Cannabis herb
Herbal cannabis is the most widely trafficked drug and the most commonly encountered form of the drug. North America is the largest source of cannabis herb production, although the market is largely self contained. Possibly two-thirds of the cannabis products consumed in the United States are grown domestically, with the rest of the demand being supplied by Mexico and, to a lesser extent, Canada. Based on UNODC estimates, North America accounts for 33% of the global production of cannabis, followed by Africa, South Asia and South America. Significant exporters of cannabis herb include Lesotho, Malawi, Nigeria, South Africa and Sw aziland in Africa; Canada, Colombia, Jamaica and Mexico in the Americas; Central Asian states of K azakhstan and Kyrgyzstan; Egypt and Lebanon in the Middle East; and Cambodia, India, the Philippines and Thailand in Asia. Seizure data for cannabis herb further reflect the regional nature of the trade.



Cannabis resin
Cannabis resin trafficking follows a decidedly different pattern. Based on UNODC estimates, the primary source countries for cannabis resin are Morocco (31%), Pakistan (18%) and Afghanistan (17%). Other significant sources of resin are Albania, Jamaica, India, Iran, K azakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Nepal.



In 2004, INTERPOL member countries reported the following cannabis-seizure statistics:
Region Herbal cannabis (kg) Cannabis resin (kg) Cannabis oil (kg)
Africa 1,258,372 93,755 1
Americas 2,756,841 1,670 554
Asia 194,617 4,938
Europe 55,469 999,699 387
Near & Middle East 26,020 2,840
Oceania 965 -- 2
Total 4,292,286 1,102,903 943

Despite claims of medicinal value and legalisation arguments, cannabis products remain illegal under the legal standards of the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, and revenues from the sale of illicit cannabis products are used for other criminal ventures. INTERPOL member countries remain firmly committed to their enforcement efforts against the cultivation and trafficking of cannabis products.